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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Évolution dirigée</span></h1>
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<p>L'<b>évolution dirigée</b> (<b>ED</b>) est une méthode utilisée en ingénierie des protéines qui imite le processus de <a href="S%C3%A9lection_naturelle" title="Sélection naturelle">sélection naturelle</a> pour "diriger" l'<a href="%C3%89volution_(biologie)" title="Évolution (biologie)">évolution</a> des <a href="Prot%C3%A9ine" title="Protéine">protéines</a> ou des <a href="Acide_nucl%C3%A9ique" title="Acide nucléique">acides nucléiques</a> vers un certain objectif défini par l'utilisateur<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. Cette méthode consiste à soumettre un <a href="G%C3%A8ne" title="Gène">gène</a> à des cycles <a href="It%C3%A9ration" title="Itération">itératifs</a> de <a href="Mutag%C3%A9n%C3%A8se" title="Mutagénèse">mutagénèse</a> (ce qui crée une banque de variants), de sélection (qui permet d'exprimer des variants et d'isoler des membres possédant la fonction que l'on recherche) et d'<a href="Amplicon" title="Amplicon">amplification</a> (ce qui génère un modèle pour le cycle suivant). Elle peut être mise en place <i><a href="In_vivo" title="In vivo">in vivo</a></i> (dans des <a href="Cellule_(biologie)" title="Cellule (biologie)">cellules</a> vivantes), ou <i><a href="In_vitro" title="In vitro">in vitro</a></i> (cellules libres en solution ou dans des <a href="Microgoutte" title="Microgoutte">microgouttes</a>). L'évolution dirigée est utilisée à la fois en ingénierie des protéines comme alternative à la conception rationnelle des protéines modifiées, ainsi que dans les études des principes évolutifs fondamentaux en environnement contrôlé en laboratoire.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Principes">Principes</h2></div>
<p>L'évolution dirigée est une imitation du cycle naturel de l'évolution dans le cadre d'un dispositif en laboratoire. L'évolution requiert trois choses pour avoir lieu : qu'il y ait de la variation (<a href="Diversit%C3%A9_g%C3%A9n%C3%A9tique" title="Diversité génétique">diversité génétique</a>) entre les réplicats, que cette variation cause des différences dans la <a href="Valeur_s%C3%A9lective" title="Valeur sélective">valeur sélective</a> sur laquelle la sélection agit, et enfin que cette variation soit <a href="H%C3%A9ritabilit%C3%A9" title="Héritabilité">héritable</a>. En ED, un seul gène subit le processus d'évolution par des cycles itératifs de mutagénèse, de sélection ou dépistage, et d'amplification<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. Typiquement, les cycles de ces étapes sont répétés, en utilisant le meilleur variant d'un cycle comme modèle pour le suivant afin d'améliorer le processus étape par étape.
</p><p>La probabilité de succès dans une expérience d'évolution dirigée est directement liée à la taille totale de la banque, car le fait de prendre en compte plus de <a href="Mutation_g%C3%A9n%C3%A9tique" title="Mutation génétique">mutants</a> augmente les chances d'en trouver un possédant les propriétés d'intérêt<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>.
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Engendrer_de_la_diversité"><span id="Engendrer_de_la_diversit.C3.A9"></span>Engendrer de la diversité</h3></div>
<p>La première étape dans la réalisation d'un cycle d'ED est la création d'une <a href="Banque_de_g%C3%A8nes" title="Banque de gènes">banque de gènes</a> variants. L'<a href="Espace_s%C3%A9quentiel" title="Espace séquentiel">espace séquentiel</a> d'une séquence aléatoire est vaste (10<sup>130</sup> séquences possibles pour une protéine de 100 <a href="Acide_amin%C3%A9" title="Acide aminé">acides aminés</a>) et extrêmement peu peuplé par des protéines fonctionnelles. Ni l'<a href="%C3%89volution_exp%C3%A9rimentale" title="Évolution expérimentale">évolution expérimentale</a><sup id="cite_ref-r0FAXZT_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-r0FAXZT-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ni l'évolution naturelle<sup id="cite_ref-:1_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ne peuvent approcher le fait de pouvoir échantillonner autant de séquences. Bien sûr, l'évolution naturelle échantillonne des séquences variantes proches des séquences de protéines fonctionnelles, et cela est limité en ED par la mutagénèse d'un gène déjà fonctionnel. Certains calculs suggèrent que c'est entièrement faisable dans tous les buts pratiques (fonctionnels et structurels), l'espace séquentiel protéique ayant été entièrement exploré au cours de l'évolution de la vie sur Terre<sup id="cite_ref-:1_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>.
</p><p>Le gène de départ peut subir la mutagénèse par des <a href="Mutation_ponctuelle" title="Mutation ponctuelle">mutations ponctuelles</a> (en utilisant des <a href="Mutag%C3%A8ne" title="Mutagène">mutagènes</a> chimiques ou la <a href="R%C3%A9action_en_cha%C3%AEne_par_polym%C3%A9rase" title="Réaction en chaîne par polymérase">PCR</a> sujette à erreurs)<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ainsi que par des <a href="Insertion_(g%C3%A9n%C3%A9tique)" title="Insertion (génétique)">insertions</a> et <a href="D%C3%A9l%C3%A9tion_(g%C3%A9n%C3%A9tique)" class="mw-redirect" title="Délétion (génétique)">délétions</a> (grâce à des <a href="%C3%89l%C3%A9ment_transposable" title="Élément transposable">transposons</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. La <a href="Recombinaison_g%C3%A9n%C3%A9tique" title="Recombinaison génétique">recombinaison génétique</a> peut être imitée par un remaniement de l'ADN<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> de plusieurs séquences (habituellement de plus de 70% d'<a href="Homologie_(%C3%A9volution)" title="Homologie (évolution)">homologie</a>) afin de sauter dans des régions d'espace séquentiel entre les gènes parents remaniés. Enfin, des régions spécifiques d'un gène peuvent être systématiquement randomisées (subir une <a href="Mutag%C3%A9n%C3%A8se_al%C3%A9atoire" title="Mutagénèse aléatoire">mutagénèse aléatoire</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> pour une approche plus ciblée basée sur la connaissance de la structure et de la fonction. En fonction de la méthode utilisée, la proportion de variants fonctionnels variera d'une banque à l'autre. Même si un organisme est utilisé pour exprimer un gène d'intérêt, si seulement ce gène subit une mutagénèse, le reste du <a href="G%C3%A9nome" title="Génome">génome</a> de l'organisme restera le même et peut être ignoré pour l'expérience (dans la mesure où on garde un environnement génétique constant).
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Détecter_des_différences_dans_la_valeur_sélective"><span id="D.C3.A9tecter_des_diff.C3.A9rences_dans_la_valeur_s.C3.A9lective"></span>Détecter des différences dans la valeur sélective</h3></div>
<p>La plupart des <a href="Mutation_g%C3%A9n%C3%A9tique" title="Mutation génétique">mutations</a> non neutres sont délétères et donc les banques de mutants tendent à avoir majoritairement des variants avec une <a href="Catalyse" title="Catalyse">activité</a> réduite<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. Ainsi, une analyse à haut débit est vitale pour mesurer l'activité afin de trouver les rares variants ayant des mutations bénéfiques qui améliorent les propriétés désirées. Deux catégories principales de méthodes existent pour isoler les variants fonctionnels. Les systèmes de sélection couplent directement la fonction protéique à la survie du gène, alors que les systèmes de dépistage analysent individuellement chaque variant et permettent de fixer un seuil quantitatif pour isoler un variant ou une population de variants d'une activité désirée. À la fois la sélection et le dépistage peuvent être réalisés dans les cellules vivantes (évolution <i>in vivo</i>) ou directement sur la protéine ou l'<a href="Acide_ribonucl%C3%A9ique" title="Acide ribonucléique">ARN</a> sans que ce soit à l'intérieur de cellules (évolution <i>in vitro</i>)<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>.
</p><p>Pendant l'évolution <i>in vivo</i>, chaque cellule (habituellement chez les <a href="Bact%C3%A9rie" title="Bactérie">bactéries</a> ou les <a href="Levure" title="Levure">levures</a>) est <a href="Transformation_(g%C3%A9n%C3%A9tique)" title="Transformation (génétique)">transformée</a> avec un <a href="Plasmide" title="Plasmide">plasmide</a> contenant un membre différent de la banque de variants. Dans cette méthode, seul le gène d'intérêt diffère entre les cellules, tous les autres gènes restant les mêmes. Les cellules expriment la protéine soit dans leur <a href="Cytoplasme" title="Cytoplasme">cytoplasme</a> soit à leur surface, où leur fonction peut être testée. Ce format a l'avantage de sélectionner des propriétés dans un environnement cellulaire, ce qui est utile lorsque la protéine ou l'ARN évolué(e) est utilisé(e) dans des organismes vivants. Dans la méthode sans cellules, l'ED implique l'utilisation de transcription-traduction <i>in vitro</i> pour produire des protéines ou de l'ARN libre(s) en solution ou compartimentalisé(es) dans des microgouttes artificielles. Cette méthode a l'avantage d'être plus versatile dans les conditions de sélection (par exemple la <a href="Temp%C3%A9rature" title="Température">température</a>, le <a href="Solvant" title="Solvant">solvant</a>), et peut exprimer des protéines qui peuvent être toxiques pour les cellules. De plus, les expériences d'évolution <i>in vitro</i> peuvent générer des banques beaucoup plus grandes (jusqu'à 10<sup>15</sup>) parce que la banque d'ADN n'a pas besoin d'être insérée dans les cellules (ce qui constitue souvent une étape limitante).
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sélection"><span id="S.C3.A9lection"></span>Sélection</h4></div>
<p>Sélectionner l'activité de liaison est conceptuellement simple. La <a href="Mol%C3%A9cule" title="Molécule">molécule</a> cible est immobilisée sur un support solide, on fait couler une banque de protéines variantes sur ce support, celles qui se lient faiblement sont emportées et les variants liants restants sont récupérés afin d'isoler leurs gènes<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. La liaison d'une <a href="Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzyme</a> à un inhibiteur covalent immobilisé a également été utilisée pour tenter d'isoler des catalyseurs actifs. Cependant, cette approche sélectionne seulement un turnover catalytique unique et ne constitue pas un bon modèle de liaison au substrat ou une bonne réactivité au substrat. Si une activité enzymatique peut se révéler nécessaire pour la survie de la cellule, soit par la synthèse d'un <a href="M%C3%A9tabolite" title="Métabolite">métabolite</a> vital soit par destruction d'une <a href="Toxine" title="Toxine">toxine</a>, alors la survie de la cellule est fonction de l'activité enzymatique<sup id="cite_ref-rAGNNDI_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rAGNNDI-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. De tels systèmes sont généralement limités en débit seulement par la transformation efficace des cellules. Ils sont également moins chers et exigeants en main-d'œuvre que le dépistage, néanmoins ils sont typiquement difficiles à concevoir, enclins aux <a href="Art%C3%A9fact_(erreur)" title="Artéfact (erreur)">artéfacts</a> et ne donnent aucune information sur la gamme d'activités présentes dans la banque.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dépistage"><span id="D.C3.A9pistage"></span>Dépistage</h4></div>
<p>Une alternative à la sélection est le système de dépistage. Chaque gène variant est exprimé individuellement et analysé pour mesurer quantitativement l'activité (le plus souvent grâce à un <a href="Indicateur_color%C3%A9" title="Indicateur coloré">indicateur coloré</a> ou un <a href="Fluorochrome" title="Fluorochrome">fluorochrome</a>). Les variants sont ensuite classés et l'expérimentateur décide quels variants utiliser comme modèles pour le cycle suivant d'évolution dirigée. Même les analyses avec le plus haut débit ont une couverture moins large que les méthodes de sélection, mais ont l'avantage de donner des informations détaillées sur chacun des variants dépistés. Ces données désagrégées peuvent aussi être utilisées afin de caractériser la distribution des activités dans les banques, ce qui n'est pas possible dans les simples systèmes de sélection. Ainsi, les systèmes de dépistage apportent des avantages certains lorsqu'il s'agit de caractériser expérimentalement l'évolution adaptative et les <a href="Paysage_adaptatif" title="Paysage adaptatif">paysages adaptatifs</a>.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Assurer_l'hérédité"><span id="Assurer_l.27h.C3.A9r.C3.A9dit.C3.A9"></span>Assurer l'hérédité</h3></div>
<p>Lorsque les protéines fonctionnelles ont été isolées, il est nécessaire que leurs gènes le soient aussi ; en conséquence, un lien <a href="G%C3%A9notype" title="Génotype">génotype</a>-<a href="Ph%C3%A9notype" title="Phénotype">phénotype</a> est requis<sup id="cite_ref-rAGNNDI_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rAGNNDI-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. Ce lien peut être covalent, comme dans l'affichage d'ARNm où le gène de l'<a href="Acide_ribonucl%C3%A9ique_messager" title="Acide ribonucléique messager">ARNm</a> est lié à la protéine par la <a href="Puromycine" title="Puromycine">puromycine</a> à la fin de la <a href="Traduction_g%C3%A9n%C3%A9tique" title="Traduction génétique">traduction</a><sup id="cite_ref-r0FAXZT_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-r0FAXZT-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. Autrement, la protéine et son gène peuvent être co-localisés par compartimentalisation dans les cellules vivantes<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ou dans des gouttelettes d'émulsion<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. Les séquences géniques isolées sont ensuite amplifiées par PCR ou par des bactéries-hôtes transformées. On peut utiliser soit la meilleure séquence, soit un groupe de séquences, en tant que modèles pour le cycle suivant de mutagénèse. Les cycles répétés de diversification-sélection-amplification génèrent des variants protéiques adaptés aux <a href="Pression_de_s%C3%A9lection" title="Pression de sélection">pressions de sélection</a> appliquées.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Comparaison_avec_la_conception_rationnelle_des_protéines"><span id="Comparaison_avec_la_conception_rationnelle_des_prot.C3.A9ines"></span>Comparaison avec la conception rationnelle des protéines</h2></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Avantages_de_l'évolution_dirigée"><span id="Avantages_de_l.27.C3.A9volution_dirig.C3.A9e"></span>Avantages de l'évolution dirigée</h3></div>
<p>La conception rationnelle d'une protéine est basée sur une connaissance approfondie de la structure de cette protéine, ainsi que de son <a href="Catalyse_enzymatique" title="Catalyse enzymatique">mécanisme catalytique</a><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. Des changements spécifiques sont ensuite effectués <i>via</i> une <a href="Mutag%C3%A9n%C3%A8se_dirig%C3%A9e" title="Mutagénèse dirigée">mutagénèse dirigée</a> dans le but de changer la fonction de la protéine. L'inconvénient de cela est que même quand la structure et le mécanisme d'action de la protéine sont bien connus, le changement dû à la mutation est encore difficile à prédire. Ainsi, un avantage de l'ED est qu'il n'y a pas besoin de comprendre le mécanisme de l'activité désirée ou de comment les mutations l'affecteraient<sup id="cite_ref-:2_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Limites_de_l'évolution_dirigée"><span id="Limites_de_l.27.C3.A9volution_dirig.C3.A9e"></span>Limites de l'évolution dirigée</h3></div>
<p>Une restriction de l'ED est qu'une analyse à haut débit est requise afin de mesurer les effets d'un grand nombre de différentes mutations aléatoires. Cela peut demander une recherche et un développement extensifs avant qu'on puisse l'utiliser pour l'ED. De plus, de telles analyses sont souvent très spécifiques à l'observation d'une activité particulière, et ne sont donc pas transférables à de nouvelles expériences d'ED<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>.
</p><p>De plus, sélectionner une amélioration dans la fonction analysée génère simplement des améliorations dans cette fonction. Pour comprendre comment ces améliorations sont atteintes, les propriétés de l'enzyme qui évolue doivent être mesurées. Une amélioration de l'activité analysée peut être due à des améliorations dans l'activité catalytique de l'enzyme ou dans la concentration de cette enzyme. Cela ne confère également pas de garantie qu'une amélioration dans un substrat va améliorer l'activité dans un autre. Cela est particulièrement important lorsque l'activité désirée ne peut pas être directement dépistée ou sélectionnée, et on utilise donc un substrat "<a href="Proxy_(variable)" title="Proxy (variable)">proxy</a>". L'ED peut mener à une spécialisation évolutive du proxy sans améliorer l'activité désirée. En conséquence, choisir un dépistage ou des conditions de sélections approprié(e)s est vital pour qu'une ED réussisse.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Approches_combinatoires">Approches combinatoires</h3></div>
<p>Les chercheurs étudient des approches combinées "semi-rationnelles" afin de répondre aux limites de la conception rationnelle et l'évolution dirigée<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-rD1999E_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rD1999E-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. Les mutations bénéfiques sont rares, et donc des nombres élevés de mutants aléatoires doivent subir un dépistage afin de trouver des variants améliorés. Les "banques ciblées" se concentrent sur des régions randomisées que l'on suppose plus riches en mutations bénéfiques pour l'étape de mutagénèse de l'ED. Une banque ciblée contient moins de variants qu'une banque de mutants aléatoires traditionnelle et donc n'a pas besoin d'une telle analyse à haut débit.
</p><p>Le fait de créer une banque ciblée requiert une certaine connaissance des résidus à muter dans la structure ; par exemple, la connaissance du <a href="Site_actif" title="Site actif">site actif</a> d'une enzyme peut permettre seulement aux résidus connus pour interagir avec le substrat d'être randomisés<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. Autrement, la connaissance de quelles régions protéiques sont variables dans la nature peut guider la mutagénèse seulement dans ces régions-là<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Utilisations">Utilisations</h2></div>
<p>L'évolution dirigée est fréquemment utilisée en ingénierie des protéines comme une alternative à la conception rationnelle<sup id="cite_ref-:3_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>, mais peut aussi être utilisée pour étudier des questions fondamentales d'évolution des enzymes<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ingénierie_des_protéines"><span id="Ing.C3.A9nierie_des_prot.C3.A9ines"></span>Ingénierie des protéines</h3></div>
<p>En tant qu'outil d'ingénierie des protéines, l'ED a eu le plus de succès dans trois domaines :
</p>
<ol><li>Améliorer la stabilité des protéines à utilisation <a href="Biotechnologie" title="Biotechnologie">biotechnologique</a>, à des hautes températures ou dans des solvants puissants<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ;</li>
<li>Améliorer l'<a href="Affinit%C3%A9_(immunologie)" title="Affinité (immunologie)">affinité</a> de liaison d'<a href="Anticorps" title="Anticorps">anticorps</a> thérapeutiques (maturation de l'affinité)<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> et l'activité d'enzymes conçues <i><a href="De_novo" title="De novo">de novo</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-:2_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ;</li>
<li>Modifier la spécificité de substrat d'enzymes existantes<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-rAUGKE5_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rAUGKE5-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (souvent destinées à être utilisées dans l'industrie)<sup id="cite_ref-:3_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>.</li></ol>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Études_évolutives"><span id=".C3.89tudes_.C3.A9volutives"></span>Études évolutives</h3></div>
<p>L'étude de l'évolution naturelle est traditionnellement basée sur des organismes encore existants de nos jours, et leurs gènes. Cependant, la recherche est fondamentalement limitée par le manque de <a href="Fossile" title="Fossile">fossiles</a> (et particulièrement le manque de séquences d'<a href="ADN_fossile" title="ADN fossile">ADN fossile</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> et une connaissance incomplète des anciennes conditions environnementales. L'évolution dirigée aborde l'évolution dans un système contrôlé de gènes codant des enzymes individuelles<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-rD1999E_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rD1999E-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-rAUGKE5_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rAUGKE5-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>, des <a href="Ribozyme" title="Ribozyme">ribozymes</a><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> et des réplicateurs<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (voir la <a href="Th%C3%A9orie_du_g%C3%A8ne_%C3%A9go%C3%AFste" class="mw-redirect" title="Théorie du gène égoïste">théorie du gène égoïste</a> de <a href="Richard_Dawkins" title="Richard Dawkins">Richard Dawkins</a>), de façon similaire à l'évolution expérimentale des <a href="Eukaryota" title="Eukaryota">eucaryotes</a><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>, <a href="Prokaryota" title="Prokaryota">procaryotes</a><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> et <a href="Virus" title="Virus">virus</a><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>.
</p><p>L'ED permet de contrôler la pression de sélection, le <a href="Taux_de_mutation" title="Taux de mutation">taux de mutation</a> et l'environnement (à la fois au niveau des <a href="Facteur_abiotique" title="Facteur abiotique">facteurs abiotiques</a> comme la température, et des <a href="Facteur_biotique" title="Facteur biotique">facteurs biotiques</a> comme les autres gènes présents dans l'organisme). De plus, il existe un dossier complet listant tous les gènes évolutifs intermédiaires. Cela permet d'avoir des mesures détaillées des processus évolutifs, par exemple l'<a href="%C3%89pistasie" title="Épistasie">épistasie</a>, l'<a href="%C3%89volvabilit%C3%A9" title="Évolvabilité">évolvabilité</a>, les <a href="Paysage_adaptatif" title="Paysage adaptatif">paysages adaptatifs</a><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> contraints dans l'<a href="Adaptationnisme" title="Adaptationnisme">adaptationnisme</a><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference cite_virgule">,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>, et les <a href="R%C3%A9seau_neutre_(%C3%A9volution)" title="Réseau neutre (évolution)">réseaux neutres</a><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes_et_références"><span id="Notes_et_r.C3.A9f.C3.A9rences"></span>Notes et références</h2></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3></div>
<ul><li><abbr class="abbr indicateur-langue" title="Langue : anglais">(en)</abbr> Cet article est partiellement ou en totalité issu de l’article de Wikipédia en anglais intitulé <span class="">« <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directed_evolution?oldid=793816044">Directed evolution</a> » <small>(<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directed_evolution?action=history">voir la liste des auteurs</a>)</small></span>.</li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Références"><span id="R.C3.A9f.C3.A9rences"></span>Références</h3></div>
<div class="references-small decimal" style=""><div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-:0-1"><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Lutz2010"><span class="ouvrage" id="Stefan_Lutz2010">Stefan <span class="nom_auteur">Lutz</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">Beyond directed evolution--semi-rational protein engineering and design</cite> », <i>Current Opinion in Biotechnology</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 21, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 6, <time class="nowrap" datetime="2010-12" data-sort-value="2010-12">décembre 2010</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">734–743</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/1879-0429">1879-0429</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20869867">20869867</a></span>, <a href="PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMCID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2982887">PMC2982887</a></span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.copbio.2010.08.011">10.1016/j.copbio.2010.08.011</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20869867">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Beyond+directed+evolution--semi-rational+protein+engineering+and+design&rft.jtitle=Current+Opinion+in+Biotechnology&rft.issue=6&rft.aulast=Lutz&rft.aufirst=Stefan&rft.date=2010-12&rft.volume=21&rft.pages=734%E2%80%93743&rft.issn=1879-0429&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.copbio.2010.08.011&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20869867&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-2">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="VoigtKauffmanWang2000"><span class="ouvrage" id="C._A._VoigtS._KauffmanZ._G._Wang2000">C. A. <span class="nom_auteur">Voigt</span>, S. <span class="nom_auteur">Kauffman</span> et Z. G. <span class="nom_auteur">Wang</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">Rational evolutionary design: the theory of in vitro protein evolution</cite> », <i>Advances in Protein Chemistry</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 55, <time>2000</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">79–160</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/0065-3233">0065-3233</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11050933">11050933</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11050933">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Rational+evolutionary+design%3A+the+theory+of+in+vitro+protein+evolution&rft.jtitle=Advances+in+Protein+Chemistry&rft.aulast=Voigt&rft.aufirst=C.+A.&rft.au=Kauffman%2C+S.&rft.au=Wang%2C+Z.+G.&rft.date=2000&rft.volume=55&rft.pages=79%E2%80%93160&rft.issn=0065-3233&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11050933&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-3">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Dalby2011"><span class="ouvrage" id="Paul_A._Dalby2011">Paul A. <span class="nom_auteur">Dalby</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">Strategy and success for the directed evolution of enzymes</cite> », <i>Current Opinion in Structural Biology</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 21, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 4, <time class="nowrap" datetime="2011-08" data-sort-value="2011-08">août 2011</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">473–480</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/1879-033X">1879-033X</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21684150">21684150</a></span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sbi.2011.05.003">10.1016/j.sbi.2011.05.003</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21684150">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Strategy+and+success+for+the+directed+evolution+of+enzymes&rft.jtitle=Current+Opinion+in+Structural+Biology&rft.issue=4&rft.aulast=Dalby&rft.aufirst=Paul+A.&rft.date=2011-08&rft.volume=21&rft.pages=473%E2%80%93480&rft.issn=1879-033X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.sbi.2011.05.003&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21684150&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-r0FAXZT-4"><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="LipovsekPlückthun2004"><span class="ouvrage" id="Dasa_LipovsekAndreas_Plückthun2004">Dasa <span class="nom_auteur">Lipovsek</span> et Andreas <span class="nom_auteur">Plückthun</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">In-vitro protein evolution by ribosome display and mRNA display</cite> », <i>Journal of Immunological Methods</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 290, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéros">n<sup>os</sup></abbr> 1-2, <time class="nowrap" datetime="2004-07" data-sort-value="2004-07">juillet 2004</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">51–67</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/0022-1759">0022-1759</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15261571">15261571</a></span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jim.2004.04.008">10.1016/j.jim.2004.04.008</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15261571">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=In-vitro+protein+evolution+by+ribosome+display+and+mRNA+display&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Immunological+Methods&rft.issue=1-2&rft.aulast=Lipovsek&rft.aufirst=Dasa&rft.au=Pl%C3%BCckthun%2C+Andreas&rft.date=2004-07&rft.volume=290&rft.pages=51%E2%80%9367&rft.issn=0022-1759&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jim.2004.04.008&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15261571&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:1-5"><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="DrydenThomsonWhite2008"><span class="ouvrage" id="David_T._F._DrydenAndrew_R._ThomsonJohn_H._White2008">David T. F. <span class="nom_auteur">Dryden</span>, Andrew R. <span class="nom_auteur">Thomson</span> et John H. <span class="nom_auteur">White</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">How much of protein sequence space has been explored by life on Earth?</cite> », <i>Journal of the Royal Society, Interface</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 5, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 25, <time class="nowrap" datetime="2008-08-06" data-sort-value="2008-08-06">6 août 2008</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">953–956</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/1742-5689">1742-5689</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18426772">18426772</a></span>, <a href="PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMCID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2459213">PMC2459213</a></span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2008.0085">10.1098/rsif.2008.0085</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18426772">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=How+much+of+protein+sequence+space+has+been+explored+by+life+on+Earth%3F&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Royal+Society%2C+Interface&rft.issue=25&rft.aulast=Dryden&rft.aufirst=David+T.+F.&rft.au=Thomson%2C+Andrew+R.&rft.au=White%2C+John+H.&rft.date=2008-08-06&rft.volume=5&rft.pages=953%E2%80%93956&rft.issn=1742-5689&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsif.2008.0085&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18426772&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-6">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="KuchnerArnold1997"><span class="ouvrage" id="O._KuchnerF._H._Arnold1997">O. <span class="nom_auteur">Kuchner</span> et F. H. <span class="nom_auteur">Arnold</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">Directed evolution of enzyme catalysts</cite> », <i>Trends in Biotechnology</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 15, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 12, <time class="nowrap" datetime="1997-12" data-sort-value="1997-12">décembre 1997</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">523–530</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/0167-7799">0167-7799</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9418307">9418307</a></span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0167-7799%2897%2901138-4">10.1016/S0167-7799(97)01138-4</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9418307">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Directed+evolution+of+enzyme+catalysts&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Biotechnology&rft.issue=12&rft.aulast=Kuchner&rft.aufirst=O.&rft.au=Arnold%2C+F.+H.&rft.date=1997-12&rft.volume=15&rft.pages=523%E2%80%93530&rft.issn=0167-7799&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0167-7799%2897%2901138-4&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9418307&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-7">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="SenVenkata_DasuMandal2007"><span class="ouvrage" id="S._SenV._Venkata_DasuB._Mandal2007">S. <span class="nom_auteur">Sen</span>, V. <span class="nom_auteur">Venkata Dasu</span> et B. <span class="nom_auteur">Mandal</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">Developments in directed evolution for improving enzyme functions</cite> », <i>Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 143, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 3, <time class="nowrap" datetime="2007-12" data-sort-value="2007-12">décembre 2007</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">212–223</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/0273-2289">0273-2289</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18057449">18057449</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18057449">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Developments+in+directed+evolution+for+improving+enzyme+functions&rft.jtitle=Applied+Biochemistry+and+Biotechnology&rft.issue=3&rft.aulast=Sen&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.au=Venkata+Dasu%2C+V.&rft.au=Mandal%2C+B.&rft.date=2007-12&rft.volume=143&rft.pages=212%E2%80%93223&rft.issn=0273-2289&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18057449&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-8">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Jones2005"><span class="ouvrage" id="D._Dafydd_Jones2005">D. Dafydd <span class="nom_auteur">Jones</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">Triplet nucleotide removal at random positions in a target gene: the tolerance of TEM-1 beta-lactamase to an amino acid deletion</cite> », <i>Nucleic Acids Research</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 33, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 9, <time class="nowrap" datetime="2005-05-16" data-sort-value="2005-05-16">16 mai 2005</time>, e80 <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/1362-4962">1362-4962</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15897323">15897323</a></span>, <a href="PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMCID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1129029">PMC1129029</a></span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/nar/gni077">10.1093/nar/gni077</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15897323">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Triplet+nucleotide+removal+at+random+positions+in+a+target+gene%3A+the+tolerance+of+TEM-1+beta-lactamase+to+an+amino+acid+deletion&rft.jtitle=Nucleic+Acids+Research&rft.issue=9&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=D.+Dafydd&rft.date=2005-05-16&rft.volume=33&rft.pages=e80&rft.issn=1362-4962&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fnar%2Fgni077&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15897323&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-9">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Stemmer1994"><span class="ouvrage" id="W._P._Stemmer1994">W. P. <span class="nom_auteur">Stemmer</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">Rapid evolution of a protein in vitro by DNA shuffling</cite> », <i>Nature</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 370, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 6488, <time class="nowrap" datetime="1994-08-04" data-sort-value="1994-08-04">4 août 1994</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">389–391</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/0028-0836">0028-0836</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8047147">8047147</a></span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/370389a0">10.1038/370389a0</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8047147">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Rapid+evolution+of+a+protein+in+vitro+by+DNA+shuffling&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.issue=6488&rft.aulast=Stemmer&rft.aufirst=W.+P.&rft.date=1994-08-04&rft.volume=370&rft.pages=389%E2%80%93391&rft.issn=0028-0836&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F370389a0&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F8047147&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-10">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="CrameriRaillardBermudezStemmer1998"><span class="ouvrage" id="A._CrameriS._A._RaillardE._BermudezW._P._Stemmer1998">A. <span class="nom_auteur">Crameri</span>, S. A. <span class="nom_auteur">Raillard</span>, E. <span class="nom_auteur">Bermudez</span> et W. P. <span class="nom_auteur">Stemmer</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">DNA shuffling of a family of genes from diverse species accelerates directed evolution</cite> », <i>Nature</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 391, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 6664, <time class="nowrap" datetime="1998-01-15" data-sort-value="1998-01-15">15 janvier 1998</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">288–291</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/0028-0836">0028-0836</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9440693">9440693</a></span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/34663">10.1038/34663</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9440693">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=DNA+shuffling+of+a+family+of+genes+from+diverse+species+accelerates+directed+evolution&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.issue=6664&rft.aulast=Crameri&rft.aufirst=A.&rft.au=Raillard%2C+S.+A.&rft.au=Bermudez%2C+E.&rft.au=Stemmer%2C+W.+P.&rft.date=1998-01-15&rft.volume=391&rft.pages=288%E2%80%93291&rft.issn=0028-0836&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F34663&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9440693&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-11">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="ReetzCarballeira2007"><span class="ouvrage" id="Manfred_T._ReetzJosé_Daniel_Carballeira2007">Manfred T. <span class="nom_auteur">Reetz</span> et José Daniel <span class="nom_auteur">Carballeira</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">Iterative saturation mutagenesis (ISM) for rapid directed evolution of functional enzymes</cite> », <i>Nature Protocols</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 2, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 4, <time>2007</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">891–903</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/1750-2799">1750-2799</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17446890">17446890</a></span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nprot.2007.72">10.1038/nprot.2007.72</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17446890">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Iterative+saturation+mutagenesis+%28ISM%29+for+rapid+directed+evolution+of+functional+enzymes&rft.jtitle=Nature+Protocols&rft.issue=4&rft.aulast=Reetz&rft.aufirst=Manfred+T.&rft.au=Carballeira%2C+Jos%C3%A9+Daniel&rft.date=2007&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=891%E2%80%93903&rft.issn=1750-2799&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnprot.2007.72&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17446890&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-12">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Hartl2014"><span class="ouvrage" id="Daniel_L._Hartl2014">Daniel L. <span class="nom_auteur">Hartl</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">What can we learn from fitness landscapes?</cite> », <i>Current Opinion in Microbiology</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 21, <time class="nowrap" datetime="2014-10" data-sort-value="2014-10">octobre 2014</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">51–57</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/1879-0364">1879-0364</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25444121">25444121</a></span>, <a href="PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMCID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4254422">PMC4254422</a></span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mib.2014.08.001">10.1016/j.mib.2014.08.001</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25444121">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=What+can+we+learn+from+fitness+landscapes%3F&rft.jtitle=Current+Opinion+in+Microbiology&rft.aulast=Hartl&rft.aufirst=Daniel+L.&rft.date=2014-10&rft.volume=21&rft.pages=51%E2%80%9357&rft.issn=1879-0364&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.mib.2014.08.001&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25444121&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-13">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="BadranLiu2015"><span class="ouvrage" id="Ahmed_H._BadranDavid_R._Liu2015">Ahmed H. <span class="nom_auteur">Badran</span> et David R. <span class="nom_auteur">Liu</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">In vivo continuous directed evolution</cite> », <i>Current Opinion in Chemical Biology</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 24, <time class="nowrap" datetime="2015-02" data-sort-value="2015-02">février 2015</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">1–10</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/1879-0402">1879-0402</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25461718">25461718</a></span>, <a href="PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMCID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4308500">PMC4308500</a></span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpa.2014.09.040">10.1016/j.cbpa.2014.09.040</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25461718">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=In+vivo+continuous+directed+evolution&rft.jtitle=Current+Opinion+in+Chemical+Biology&rft.aulast=Badran&rft.aufirst=Ahmed+H.&rft.au=Liu%2C+David+R.&rft.date=2015-02&rft.volume=24&rft.pages=1%E2%80%9310&rft.issn=1879-0402&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cbpa.2014.09.040&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25461718&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-14">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="KumarSingh2013"><span class="ouvrage" id="Ashwani_KumarSuren_Singh2013">Ashwani <span class="nom_auteur">Kumar</span> et Suren <span class="nom_auteur">Singh</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">Directed evolution: tailoring biocatalysts for industrial applications</cite> », <i>Critical Reviews in Biotechnology</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 33, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 4, <time class="nowrap" datetime="2013-12" data-sort-value="2013-12">décembre 2013</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">365–378</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/1549-7801">1549-7801</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22985113">22985113</a></span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.3109/07388551.2012.716810">10.3109/07388551.2012.716810</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22985113">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Directed+evolution%3A+tailoring+biocatalysts+for+industrial+applications&rft.jtitle=Critical+Reviews+in+Biotechnology&rft.issue=4&rft.aulast=Kumar&rft.aufirst=Ashwani&rft.au=Singh%2C+Suren&rft.date=2013-12&rft.volume=33&rft.pages=365%E2%80%93378&rft.issn=1549-7801&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3109%2F07388551.2012.716810&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22985113&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-15">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Willats2002"><span class="ouvrage" id="William_G._T._Willats2002">William G. T. <span class="nom_auteur">Willats</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">Phage display: practicalities and prospects</cite> », <i>Plant Molecular Biology</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 50, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 6, <time class="nowrap" datetime="2002-12" data-sort-value="2002-12">décembre 2002</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">837–854</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/0167-4412">0167-4412</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12516857">12516857</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12516857">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Phage+display%3A+practicalities+and+prospects&rft.jtitle=Plant+Molecular+Biology&rft.issue=6&rft.aulast=Willats&rft.aufirst=William+G.+T.&rft.date=2002-12&rft.volume=50&rft.pages=837%E2%80%93854&rft.issn=0167-4412&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12516857&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-rAGNNDI-16"><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="LeemhuisSteinGriffithsHollfelder2005"><span class="ouvrage" id="Hans_LeemhuisViktor_SteinAndrew_D._GriffithsFlorian_Hollfelder2005">Hans <span class="nom_auteur">Leemhuis</span>, Viktor <span class="nom_auteur">Stein</span>, Andrew D. <span class="nom_auteur">Griffiths</span> et Florian <span class="nom_auteur">Hollfelder</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">New genotype-phenotype linkages for directed evolution of functional proteins</cite> », <i>Current Opinion in Structural Biology</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 15, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 4, <time class="nowrap" datetime="2005-08" data-sort-value="2005-08">août 2005</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">472–478</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/0959-440X">0959-440X</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16043338">16043338</a></span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sbi.2005.07.006">10.1016/j.sbi.2005.07.006</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16043338">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=New+genotype-phenotype+linkages+for+directed+evolution+of+functional+proteins&rft.jtitle=Current+Opinion+in+Structural+Biology&rft.issue=4&rft.aulast=Leemhuis&rft.aufirst=Hans&rft.au=Stein%2C+Viktor&rft.au=Griffiths%2C+Andrew+D.&rft.au=Hollfelder%2C+Florian&rft.date=2005-08&rft.volume=15&rft.pages=472%E2%80%93478&rft.issn=0959-440X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.sbi.2005.07.006&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16043338&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-17">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="VerhoevenAltstadtSavinov2012"><span class="ouvrage" id="Kathryn_D._VerhoevenOlvia_C._AltstadtSergey_N._Savinov2012">Kathryn D. <span class="nom_auteur">Verhoeven</span>, Olvia C. <span class="nom_auteur">Altstadt</span> et Sergey N. <span class="nom_auteur">Savinov</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">Intracellular detection and evolution of site-specific proteases using a genetic selection system</cite> », <i>Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 166, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 5, <time class="nowrap" datetime="2012-03" data-sort-value="2012-03">mars 2012</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">1340–1354</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/1559-0291">1559-0291</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22270548">22270548</a></span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12010-011-9522-6">10.1007/s12010-011-9522-6</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22270548">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Intracellular+detection+and+evolution+of+site-specific+proteases+using+a+genetic+selection+system&rft.jtitle=Applied+Biochemistry+and+Biotechnology&rft.issue=5&rft.aulast=Verhoeven&rft.aufirst=Kathryn+D.&rft.au=Altstadt%2C+Olvia+C.&rft.au=Savinov%2C+Sergey+N.&rft.date=2012-03&rft.volume=166&rft.pages=1340%E2%80%931354&rft.issn=1559-0291&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs12010-011-9522-6&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22270548&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-18">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="NguyenDaugherty2005"><span class="ouvrage" id="Annalee_W._NguyenPatrick_S._Daugherty2005">Annalee W. <span class="nom_auteur">Nguyen</span> et Patrick S. <span class="nom_auteur">Daugherty</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">Evolutionary optimization of fluorescent proteins for intracellular FRET</cite> », <i>Nature Biotechnology</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 23, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 3, <time class="nowrap" datetime="2005-03" data-sort-value="2005-03">mars 2005</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">355–360</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/1087-0156">1087-0156</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15696158">15696158</a></span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nbt1066">10.1038/nbt1066</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15696158">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Evolutionary+optimization+of+fluorescent+proteins+for+intracellular+FRET&rft.jtitle=Nature+Biotechnology&rft.issue=3&rft.aulast=Nguyen&rft.aufirst=Annalee+W.&rft.au=Daugherty%2C+Patrick+S.&rft.date=2005-03&rft.volume=23&rft.pages=355%E2%80%93360&rft.issn=1087-0156&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnbt1066&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15696158&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-19">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="SchaerliHollfelder2009"><span class="ouvrage" id="Yolanda_SchaerliFlorian_Hollfelder2009">Yolanda <span class="nom_auteur">Schaerli</span> et Florian <span class="nom_auteur">Hollfelder</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">The potential of microfluidic water-in-oil droplets in experimental biology</cite> », <i>Molecular bioSystems</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 5, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 12, <time class="nowrap" datetime="2009-12" data-sort-value="2009-12">décembre 2009</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">1392–1404</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/1742-2051">1742-2051</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20023716">20023716</a></span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1039/b907578j">10.1039/b907578j</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20023716">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+potential+of+microfluidic+water-in-oil+droplets+in+experimental+biology&rft.jtitle=Molecular+bioSystems&rft.issue=12&rft.aulast=Schaerli&rft.aufirst=Yolanda&rft.au=Hollfelder%2C+Florian&rft.date=2009-12&rft.volume=5&rft.pages=1392%E2%80%931404&rft.issn=1742-2051&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1039%2Fb907578j&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20023716&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-20">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="MarshallLazarChirinoDesjarlais2003"><span class="ouvrage" id="Shannon_A._MarshallGreg_A._LazarArthur_J._ChirinoJohn_R._Desjarlais2003">Shannon A. <span class="nom_auteur">Marshall</span>, Greg A. <span class="nom_auteur">Lazar</span>, Arthur J. <span class="nom_auteur">Chirino</span> et John R. <span class="nom_auteur">Desjarlais</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">Rational design and engineering of therapeutic proteins</cite> », <i>Drug Discovery Today</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 8, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 5, <time class="nowrap" datetime="2003-03-01" data-sort-value="2003-03-01"><abbr class="abbr" title="premier">1<sup>er</sup></abbr> mars 2003</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">212–221</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/1359-6446">1359-6446</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12634013">12634013</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12634013">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Rational+design+and+engineering+of+therapeutic+proteins&rft.jtitle=Drug+Discovery+Today&rft.issue=5&rft.aulast=Marshall&rft.aufirst=Shannon+A.&rft.au=Lazar%2C+Greg+A.&rft.au=Chirino%2C+Arthur+J.&rft.au=Desjarlais%2C+John+R.&rft.date=2003-03-01&rft.volume=8&rft.pages=212%E2%80%93221&rft.issn=1359-6446&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12634013&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-21">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Wilson2015"><span class="ouvrage" id="Corey_J._Wilson2015">Corey J. <span class="nom_auteur">Wilson</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">Rational protein design: developing next-generation biological therapeutics and nanobiotechnological tools</cite> », <i>Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews. Nanomedicine and Nanobiotechnology</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 7, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 3, <time class="nowrap" datetime="2015-05" data-sort-value="2015-05">mai 2015</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">330–341</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/1939-0041">1939-0041</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25348497">25348497</a></span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/wnan.1310">10.1002/wnan.1310</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25348497">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Rational+protein+design%3A+developing+next-generation+biological+therapeutics+and+nanobiotechnological+tools&rft.jtitle=Wiley+Interdisciplinary+Reviews.+Nanomedicine+and+Nanobiotechnology&rft.issue=3&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=Corey+J.&rft.date=2015-05&rft.volume=7&rft.pages=330%E2%80%93341&rft.issn=1939-0041&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fwnan.1310&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25348497&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:2-22"><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="GigerCanerObexerKast2013"><span class="ouvrage" id="Lars_GigerSami_CanerRichard_ObexerPeter_Kast2013">Lars <span class="nom_auteur">Giger</span>, Sami <span class="nom_auteur">Caner</span>, Richard <span class="nom_auteur">Obexer</span> et Peter <span class="nom_auteur">Kast</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">Evolution of a designed retro-aldolase leads to complete active site remodeling</cite> », <i>Nature Chemical Biology</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 9, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 8, <time class="nowrap" datetime="2013-08" data-sort-value="2013-08">août 2013</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">494–498</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/1552-4469">1552-4469</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23748672">23748672</a></span>, <a href="PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMCID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3720730">PMC3720730</a></span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nchembio.1276">10.1038/nchembio.1276</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23748672">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Evolution+of+a+designed+retro-aldolase+leads+to+complete+active+site+remodeling&rft.jtitle=Nature+Chemical+Biology&rft.issue=8&rft.aulast=Giger&rft.aufirst=Lars&rft.au=Caner%2C+Sami&rft.au=Obexer%2C+Richard&rft.au=Kast%2C+Peter&rft.date=2013-08&rft.volume=9&rft.pages=494%E2%80%93498&rft.issn=1552-4469&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnchembio.1276&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23748672&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-23">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="BornscheuerPohl2001"><span class="ouvrage" id="U._T._BornscheuerM._Pohl2001">U. T. <span class="nom_auteur">Bornscheuer</span> et M. <span class="nom_auteur">Pohl</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">Improved biocatalysts by directed evolution and rational protein design</cite> », <i>Current Opinion in Chemical Biology</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 5, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 2, <time class="nowrap" datetime="2001-04" data-sort-value="2001-04">avril 2001</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">137–143</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/1367-5931">1367-5931</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11282339">11282339</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11282339">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Improved+biocatalysts+by+directed+evolution+and+rational+protein+design&rft.jtitle=Current+Opinion+in+Chemical+Biology&rft.issue=2&rft.aulast=Bornscheuer&rft.aufirst=U.+T.&rft.au=Pohl%2C+M.&rft.date=2001-04&rft.volume=5&rft.pages=137%E2%80%93143&rft.issn=1367-5931&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11282339&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-rD1999E-24"><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="GoldsmithTawfik2012"><span class="ouvrage" id="Moshe_GoldsmithDan_S._Tawfik2012">Moshe <span class="nom_auteur">Goldsmith</span> et Dan S. <span class="nom_auteur">Tawfik</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">Directed enzyme evolution: beyond the low-hanging fruit</cite> », <i>Current Opinion in Structural Biology</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 22, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 4, <time class="nowrap" datetime="2012-08" data-sort-value="2012-08">août 2012</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">406–412</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/1879-033X">1879-033X</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22579412">22579412</a></span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sbi.2012.03.010">10.1016/j.sbi.2012.03.010</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22579412">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Directed+enzyme+evolution%3A+beyond+the+low-hanging+fruit&rft.jtitle=Current+Opinion+in+Structural+Biology&rft.issue=4&rft.aulast=Goldsmith&rft.aufirst=Moshe&rft.au=Tawfik%2C+Dan+S.&rft.date=2012-08&rft.volume=22&rft.pages=406%E2%80%93412&rft.issn=1879-033X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.sbi.2012.03.010&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22579412&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-25">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="ChenSnowVizcarraMayo2012"><span class="ouvrage" id="Mike_M._Y._ChenChristopher_D._SnowChristina_L._VizcarraStephen_L._Mayo2012">Mike M. Y. <span class="nom_auteur">Chen</span>, Christopher D. <span class="nom_auteur">Snow</span>, Christina L. <span class="nom_auteur">Vizcarra</span> et Stephen L. <span class="nom_auteur">Mayo</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">Comparison of random mutagenesis and semi-rational designed libraries for improved cytochrome P450 BM3-catalyzed hydroxylation of small alkanes</cite> », <i>Protein engineering, design & selection: PEDS</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 25, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 4, <time class="nowrap" datetime="2012-04" data-sort-value="2012-04">avril 2012</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">171–178</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/1741-0134">1741-0134</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22334757">22334757</a></span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/protein/gzs004">10.1093/protein/gzs004</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22334757">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Comparison+of+random+mutagenesis+and+semi-rational+designed+libraries+for+improved+cytochrome+P450+BM3-catalyzed+hydroxylation+of+small+alkanes&rft.jtitle=Protein+engineering%2C+design+%26+selection%3A+PEDS&rft.issue=4&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.aufirst=Mike+M.+Y.&rft.au=Snow%2C+Christopher+D.&rft.au=Vizcarra%2C+Christina+L.&rft.au=Mayo%2C+Stephen+L.&rft.date=2012-04&rft.volume=25&rft.pages=171%E2%80%93178&rft.issn=1741-0134&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fprotein%2Fgzs004&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22334757&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-26">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Acevedo-RochaHoebenreichReetz2014"><span class="ouvrage" id="Carlos_G._Acevedo-RochaSabrina_HoebenreichManfred_T._Reetz2014">Carlos G. <span class="nom_auteur">Acevedo-Rocha</span>, Sabrina <span class="nom_auteur">Hoebenreich</span> et Manfred T. <span class="nom_auteur">Reetz</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">Iterative saturation mutagenesis: a powerful approach to engineer proteins by systematically simulating Darwinian evolution</cite> », <i>Methods in Molecular Biology (Clifton, N.J.)</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 1179, <time>2014</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">103–128</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/1940-6029">1940-6029</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25055773">25055773</a></span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-1053-3_7">10.1007/978-1-4939-1053-3_7</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25055773">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Iterative+saturation+mutagenesis%3A+a+powerful+approach+to+engineer+proteins+by+systematically+simulating+Darwinian+evolution&rft.jtitle=Methods+in+Molecular+Biology+%28Clifton%2C+N.J.%29&rft.aulast=Acevedo-Rocha&rft.aufirst=Carlos+G.&rft.au=Hoebenreich%2C+Sabrina&rft.au=Reetz%2C+Manfred+T.&rft.date=2014&rft.volume=1179&rft.pages=103%E2%80%93128&rft.issn=1940-6029&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4939-1053-3_7&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25055773&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-27">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="JochensBornscheuer2010"><span class="ouvrage" id="Helge_JochensUwe_T._Bornscheuer2010">Helge <span class="nom_auteur">Jochens</span> et Uwe T. <span class="nom_auteur">Bornscheuer</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">Natural diversity to guide focused directed evolution</cite> », <i>Chembiochem: A European Journal of Chemical Biology</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 11, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 13, <time class="nowrap" datetime="2010-09-03" data-sort-value="2010-09-03">3 septembre 2010</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">1861–1866</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/1439-7633">1439-7633</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20680978">20680978</a></span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cbic.201000284">10.1002/cbic.201000284</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20680978">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Natural+diversity+to+guide+focused+directed+evolution&rft.jtitle=Chembiochem%3A+A+European+Journal+of+Chemical+Biology&rft.issue=13&rft.aulast=Jochens&rft.aufirst=Helge&rft.au=Bornscheuer%2C+Uwe+T.&rft.date=2010-09-03&rft.volume=11&rft.pages=1861%E2%80%931866&rft.issn=1439-7633&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fcbic.201000284&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20680978&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-28">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="JochensAertsBornscheuer2010"><span class="ouvrage" id="Helge_JochensDirk_AertsUwe_T._Bornscheuer2010">Helge <span class="nom_auteur">Jochens</span>, Dirk <span class="nom_auteur">Aerts</span> et Uwe T. <span class="nom_auteur">Bornscheuer</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">Thermostabilization of an esterase by alignment-guided focussed directed evolution</cite> », <i>Protein engineering, design & selection: PEDS</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 23, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 12, <time class="nowrap" datetime="2010-12" data-sort-value="2010-12">décembre 2010</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">903–909</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/1741-0134">1741-0134</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20947674">20947674</a></span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/protein/gzq071">10.1093/protein/gzq071</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20947674">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Thermostabilization+of+an+esterase+by+alignment-guided+focussed+directed+evolution&rft.jtitle=Protein+engineering%2C+design+%26+selection%3A+PEDS&rft.issue=12&rft.aulast=Jochens&rft.aufirst=Helge&rft.au=Aerts%2C+Dirk&rft.au=Bornscheuer%2C+Uwe+T.&rft.date=2010-12&rft.volume=23&rft.pages=903%E2%80%93909&rft.issn=1741-0134&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fprotein%2Fgzq071&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20947674&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:3-29"><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Turner2009"><span class="ouvrage" id="Nicholas_J._Turner2009">Nicholas J. <span class="nom_auteur">Turner</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">Directed evolution drives the next generation of biocatalysts</cite> », <i>Nature Chemical Biology</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 5, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 8, <time class="nowrap" datetime="2009-08" data-sort-value="2009-08">août 2009</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">567–573</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/1552-4469">1552-4469</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19620998">19620998</a></span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nchembio.203">10.1038/nchembio.203</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19620998">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Directed+evolution+drives+the+next+generation+of+biocatalysts&rft.jtitle=Nature+Chemical+Biology&rft.issue=8&rft.aulast=Turner&rft.aufirst=Nicholas+J.&rft.date=2009-08&rft.volume=5&rft.pages=567%E2%80%93573&rft.issn=1552-4469&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnchembio.203&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19620998&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-30">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="RomeroArnold2009"><span class="ouvrage" id="Philip_A._RomeroFrances_H._Arnold2009">Philip A. <span class="nom_auteur">Romero</span> et Frances H. <span class="nom_auteur">Arnold</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">Exploring protein fitness landscapes by directed evolution</cite> », <i>Nature Reviews. Molecular Cell Biology</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 10, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 12, <time class="nowrap" datetime="2009-12" data-sort-value="2009-12">décembre 2009</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">866–876</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/1471-0080">1471-0080</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19935669">19935669</a></span>, <a href="PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMCID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2997618">PMC2997618</a></span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrm2805">10.1038/nrm2805</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19935669">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Exploring+protein+fitness+landscapes+by+directed+evolution&rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews.+Molecular+Cell+Biology&rft.issue=12&rft.aulast=Romero&rft.aufirst=Philip+A.&rft.au=Arnold%2C+Frances+H.&rft.date=2009-12&rft.volume=10&rft.pages=866%E2%80%93876&rft.issn=1471-0080&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnrm2805&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19935669&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-31">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Gatti-LafranconiNatalelloRehmDoglia2010"><span class="ouvrage" id="Pietro_Gatti-LafranconiAntonino_NatalelloSascha_RehmSilvia_Maria_Doglia2010">Pietro <span class="nom_auteur">Gatti-Lafranconi</span>, Antonino <span class="nom_auteur">Natalello</span>, Sascha <span class="nom_auteur">Rehm</span> et Silvia Maria <span class="nom_auteur">Doglia</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">Evolution of stability in a cold-active enzyme elicits specificity relaxation and highlights substrate-related effects on temperature adaptation</cite> », <i>Journal of Molecular Biology</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 395, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 1, <time class="nowrap" datetime="2010-01-08" data-sort-value="2010-01-08">8 janvier 2010</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">155–166</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/1089-8638">1089-8638</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19850050">19850050</a></span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmb.2009.10.026">10.1016/j.jmb.2009.10.026</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19850050">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Evolution+of+stability+in+a+cold-active+enzyme+elicits+specificity+relaxation+and+highlights+substrate-related+effects+on+temperature+adaptation&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Molecular+Biology&rft.issue=1&rft.aulast=Gatti-Lafranconi&rft.aufirst=Pietro&rft.au=Natalello%2C+Antonino&rft.au=Rehm%2C+Sascha&rft.au=Doglia%2C+Silvia+Maria&rft.date=2010-01-08&rft.volume=395&rft.pages=155%E2%80%93166&rft.issn=1089-8638&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jmb.2009.10.026&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19850050&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-32">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="ZhaoArnold1999"><span class="ouvrage" id="H._ZhaoF._H._Arnold1999">H. <span class="nom_auteur">Zhao</span> et F. H. <span class="nom_auteur">Arnold</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">Directed evolution converts subtilisin E into a functional equivalent of thermitase</cite> », <i>Protein Engineering</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 12, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 1, <time class="nowrap" datetime="1999-01" data-sort-value="1999-01">janvier 1999</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">47–53</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/0269-2139">0269-2139</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10065710">10065710</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10065710">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Directed+evolution+converts+subtilisin+E+into+a+functional+equivalent+of+thermitase&rft.jtitle=Protein+Engineering&rft.issue=1&rft.aulast=Zhao&rft.aufirst=H.&rft.au=Arnold%2C+F.+H.&rft.date=1999-01&rft.volume=12&rft.pages=47%E2%80%9353&rft.issn=0269-2139&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10065710&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-33">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="HawkinsRussellWinter1992"><span class="ouvrage" id="R._E._HawkinsS._J._RussellG._Winter1992">R. E. <span class="nom_auteur">Hawkins</span>, S. J. <span class="nom_auteur">Russell</span> et G. <span class="nom_auteur">Winter</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">Selection of phage antibodies by binding affinity. Mimicking affinity maturation</cite> », <i>Journal of Molecular Biology</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 226, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 3, <time class="nowrap" datetime="1992-08-05" data-sort-value="1992-08-05">5 août 1992</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">889–896</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/0022-2836">0022-2836</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1507232">1507232</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1507232">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Selection+of+phage+antibodies+by+binding+affinity.+Mimicking+affinity+maturation&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Molecular+Biology&rft.issue=3&rft.aulast=Hawkins&rft.aufirst=R.+E.&rft.au=Russell%2C+S.+J.&rft.au=Winter%2C+G.&rft.date=1992-08-05&rft.volume=226&rft.pages=889%E2%80%93896&rft.issn=0022-2836&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F1507232&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-34">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="ShaikhWithers2008"><span class="ouvrage" id="Fathima_Aidha_ShaikhStephen_G._Withers2008">Fathima Aidha <span class="nom_auteur">Shaikh</span> et Stephen G. <span class="nom_auteur">Withers</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">Teaching old enzymes new tricks: engineering and evolution of glycosidases and glycosyl transferases for improved glycoside synthesis</cite> », <i>Biochemistry and Cell Biology = Biochimie Et Biologie Cellulaire</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 86, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 2, <time class="nowrap" datetime="2008-04" data-sort-value="2008-04">avril 2008</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">169–177</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/0829-8211">0829-8211</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18443630">18443630</a></span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1139/O07-149">10.1139/O07-149</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18443630">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Teaching+old+enzymes+new+tricks%3A+engineering+and+evolution+of+glycosidases+and+glycosyl+transferases+for+improved+glycoside+synthesis&rft.jtitle=Biochemistry+and+Cell+Biology+%3D+Biochimie+Et+Biologie+Cellulaire&rft.issue=2&rft.aulast=Shaikh&rft.aufirst=Fathima+Aidha&rft.au=Withers%2C+Stephen+G.&rft.date=2008-04&rft.volume=86&rft.pages=169%E2%80%93177&rft.issn=0829-8211&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1139%2FO07-149&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18443630&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-35">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="CheriyanWaltersKangAnzaldi2011"><span class="ouvrage" id="Manoj_CheriyanMatthew_J._WaltersBrian_D._KangLaura_L._Anzaldi2011">Manoj <span class="nom_auteur">Cheriyan</span>, Matthew J. <span class="nom_auteur">Walters</span>, Brian D. <span class="nom_auteur">Kang</span> et Laura L. <span class="nom_auteur">Anzaldi</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">Directed evolution of a pyruvate aldolase to recognize a long chain acyl substrate</cite> », <i>Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 19, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 21, <time class="nowrap" datetime="2011-11-01" data-sort-value="2011-11-01"><abbr class="abbr" title="premier">1<sup>er</sup></abbr> novembre 2011</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">6447–6453</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/1464-3391">1464-3391</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21944547">21944547</a></span>, <a href="PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMCID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3209416">PMC3209416</a></span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bmc.2011.08.056">10.1016/j.bmc.2011.08.056</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21944547">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Directed+evolution+of+a+pyruvate+aldolase+to+recognize+a+long+chain+acyl+substrate&rft.jtitle=Bioorganic+%26+Medicinal+Chemistry&rft.issue=21&rft.aulast=Cheriyan&rft.aufirst=Manoj&rft.au=Walters%2C+Matthew+J.&rft.au=Kang%2C+Brian+D.&rft.au=Anzaldi%2C+Laura+L.&rft.date=2011-11-01&rft.volume=19&rft.pages=6447%E2%80%936453&rft.issn=1464-3391&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.bmc.2011.08.056&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21944547&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-36">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="MacBeathKastHilvert1998"><span class="ouvrage" id="G._MacBeathP._KastD._Hilvert1998">G. <span class="nom_auteur">MacBeath</span>, P. <span class="nom_auteur">Kast</span> et D. <span class="nom_auteur">Hilvert</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">Redesigning enzyme topology by directed evolution</cite> », <i>Science (New York, N.Y.)</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 279, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 5358, <time class="nowrap" datetime="1998-03-20" data-sort-value="1998-03-20">20 mars 1998</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">1958–1961</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/0036-8075">0036-8075</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9506949">9506949</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9506949">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Redesigning+enzyme+topology+by+directed+evolution&rft.jtitle=Science+%28New+York%2C+N.Y.%29&rft.issue=5358&rft.aulast=MacBeath&rft.aufirst=G.&rft.au=Kast%2C+P.&rft.au=Hilvert%2C+D.&rft.date=1998-03-20&rft.volume=279&rft.pages=1958%E2%80%931961&rft.issn=0036-8075&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9506949&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-rAUGKE5-37"><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="ToscanoWoycechowskyHilvert2007"><span class="ouvrage" id="Miguel_D._ToscanoKenneth_J._WoycechowskyDonald_Hilvert2007">Miguel D. <span class="nom_auteur">Toscano</span>, Kenneth J. <span class="nom_auteur">Woycechowsky</span> et Donald <span class="nom_auteur">Hilvert</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">Minimalist active-site redesign: teaching old enzymes new tricks</cite> », <i>Angewandte Chemie (International Ed. in English)</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 46, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 18, <time>2007</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">3212–3236</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/1433-7851">1433-7851</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17450624">17450624</a></span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/anie.200604205">10.1002/anie.200604205</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17450624">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Minimalist+active-site+redesign%3A+teaching+old+enzymes+new+tricks&rft.jtitle=Angewandte+Chemie+%28International+Ed.+in+English%29&rft.issue=18&rft.aulast=Toscano&rft.aufirst=Miguel+D.&rft.au=Woycechowsky%2C+Kenneth+J.&rft.au=Hilvert%2C+Donald&rft.date=2007&rft.volume=46&rft.pages=3212%E2%80%933236&rft.issn=1433-7851&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fanie.200604205&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17450624&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-38">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="PääboPoinarSerreJaenicke-Despres2004"><span class="ouvrage" id="Svante_PääboHendrik_PoinarDavid_SerreViviane_Jaenicke-Despres2004">Svante <span class="nom_auteur">Pääbo</span>, Hendrik <span class="nom_auteur">Poinar</span>, David <span class="nom_auteur">Serre</span> et Viviane <span class="nom_auteur">Jaenicke-Despres</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">Genetic analyses from ancient DNA</cite> », <i>Annual Review of Genetics</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 38, <time>2004</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">645–679</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/0066-4197">0066-4197</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15568989">15568989</a></span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genet.37.110801.143214">10.1146/annurev.genet.37.110801.143214</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15568989">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Genetic+analyses+from+ancient+DNA&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Genetics&rft.aulast=P%C3%A4%C3%A4bo&rft.aufirst=Svante&rft.au=Poinar%2C+Hendrik&rft.au=Serre%2C+David&rft.au=Jaenicke-Despres%2C+Viviane&rft.date=2004&rft.volume=38&rft.pages=645%E2%80%93679&rft.issn=0066-4197&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.genet.37.110801.143214&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15568989&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-39">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="HössJarugaZastawnyDizdaroglu1996"><span class="ouvrage" id="M._HössP._JarugaT._H._ZastawnyM._Dizdaroglu1996">M. <span class="nom_auteur">Höss</span>, P. <span class="nom_auteur">Jaruga</span>, T. H. <span class="nom_auteur">Zastawny</span> et M. <span class="nom_auteur">Dizdaroglu</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">DNA damage and DNA sequence retrieval from ancient tissues</cite> », <i>Nucleic Acids Research</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 24, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 7, <time class="nowrap" datetime="1996-04-01" data-sort-value="1996-04-01"><abbr class="abbr" title="premier">1<sup>er</sup></abbr> avril 1996</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">1304–1307</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/0305-1048">0305-1048</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8614634">8614634</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8614634">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=DNA+damage+and+DNA+sequence+retrieval+from+ancient+tissues&rft.jtitle=Nucleic+Acids+Research&rft.issue=7&rft.aulast=H%C3%B6ss&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Jaruga%2C+P.&rft.au=Zastawny%2C+T.+H.&rft.au=Dizdaroglu%2C+M.&rft.date=1996-04-01&rft.volume=24&rft.pages=1304%E2%80%931307&rft.issn=0305-1048&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F8614634&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-40">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="BloomArnold2009"><span class="ouvrage" id="Jesse_D._BloomFrances_H._Arnold2009">Jesse D. <span class="nom_auteur">Bloom</span> et Frances H. <span class="nom_auteur">Arnold</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">In the light of directed evolution: pathways of adaptive protein evolution</cite> », <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 106 Suppl 1, <time class="nowrap" datetime="2009-06-16" data-sort-value="2009-06-16">16 juin 2009</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">9995–10000</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/1091-6490">1091-6490</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528653">19528653</a></span>, <a href="PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMCID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2702793">PMC2702793</a></span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0901522106">10.1073/pnas.0901522106</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19528653">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=In+the+light+of+directed+evolution%3A+pathways+of+adaptive+protein+evolution&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.aulast=Bloom&rft.aufirst=Jesse+D.&rft.au=Arnold%2C+Frances+H.&rft.date=2009-06-16&rft.volume=106+Suppl+1&rft.pages=9995%E2%80%9310000&rft.issn=1091-6490&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0901522106&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19528653&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-41">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="MosesDavidson2011"><span class="ouvrage" id="Alan_M._MosesAlan_R._Davidson2011">Alan M. <span class="nom_auteur">Moses</span> et Alan R. <span class="nom_auteur">Davidson</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">In vitro evolution goes deep</cite> », <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 108, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 20, <time class="nowrap" datetime="2011-05-17" data-sort-value="2011-05-17">17 mai 2011</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">8071–8072</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/1091-6490">1091-6490</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21551096">21551096</a></span>, <a href="PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMCID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3100951">PMC3100951</a></span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1104843108">10.1073/pnas.1104843108</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21551096">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=In+vitro+evolution+goes+deep&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.issue=20&rft.aulast=Moses&rft.aufirst=Alan+M.&rft.au=Davidson%2C+Alan+R.&rft.date=2011-05-17&rft.volume=108&rft.pages=8071%E2%80%938072&rft.issn=1091-6490&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1104843108&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21551096&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-42">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="Salehi-AshtianiSzostak2001"><span class="ouvrage" id="K._Salehi-AshtianiJ._W._Szostak2001">K. <span class="nom_auteur">Salehi-Ashtiani</span> et J. W. <span class="nom_auteur">Szostak</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">In vitro evolution suggests multiple origins for the hammerhead ribozyme</cite> », <i>Nature</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 414, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 6859, <time class="nowrap" datetime="2001-11-01" data-sort-value="2001-11-01"><abbr class="abbr" title="premier">1<sup>er</sup></abbr> novembre 2001</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">82–84</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/0028-0836">0028-0836</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11689947">11689947</a></span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/35102081">10.1038/35102081</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11689947">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=In+vitro+evolution+suggests+multiple+origins+for+the+hammerhead+ribozyme&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.issue=6859&rft.aulast=Salehi-Ashtiani&rft.aufirst=K.&rft.au=Szostak%2C+J.+W.&rft.date=2001-11-01&rft.volume=414&rft.pages=82%E2%80%9384&rft.issn=0028-0836&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F35102081&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11689947&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-43">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="SumperLuce1975"><span class="ouvrage" id="M._SumperR._Luce1975">M. <span class="nom_auteur">Sumper</span> et R. <span class="nom_auteur">Luce</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">Evidence for de novo production of self-replicating and environmentally adapted RNA structures by bacteriophage Qbeta replicase</cite> », <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 72, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 1, <time class="nowrap" datetime="1975-01" data-sort-value="1975-01">janvier 1975</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">162–166</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/0027-8424">0027-8424</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1054493">1054493</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1054493">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Evidence+for+de+novo+production+of+self-replicating+and+environmentally+adapted+RNA+structures+by+bacteriophage+Qbeta+replicase&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.issue=1&rft.aulast=Sumper&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Luce%2C+R.&rft.date=1975-01&rft.volume=72&rft.pages=162%E2%80%93166&rft.issn=0027-8424&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F1054493&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-44">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="MillsPetersonSpiegelman1967"><span class="ouvrage" id="D._R._MillsR._L._PetersonS._Spiegelman1967">D. R. <span class="nom_auteur">Mills</span>, R. L. <span class="nom_auteur">Peterson</span> et S. <span class="nom_auteur">Spiegelman</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">An extracellular Darwinian experiment with a self-duplicating nucleic acid molecule</cite> », <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 58, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 1, <time class="nowrap" datetime="1967-07" data-sort-value="1967-07">juillet 1967</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">217–224</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/0027-8424">0027-8424</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5231602">5231602</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5231602">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=An+extracellular+Darwinian+experiment+with+a+self-duplicating+nucleic+acid+molecule&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.issue=1&rft.aulast=Mills&rft.aufirst=D.+R.&rft.au=Peterson%2C+R.+L.&rft.au=Spiegelman%2C+S.&rft.date=1967-07&rft.volume=58&rft.pages=217%E2%80%93224&rft.issn=0027-8424&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F5231602&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-45">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="MardenWolfWeber1997"><span class="ouvrage" id="J._H._MardenM._R._WolfK._E._Weber1997">J. H. <span class="nom_auteur">Marden</span>, M. R. <span class="nom_auteur">Wolf</span> et K. E. <span class="nom_auteur">Weber</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">Aerial performance of Drosophila melanogaster from populations selected for upwind flight ability</cite> », <i>The Journal of Experimental Biology</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 200, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> Pt 21, <time class="nowrap" datetime="1997-11" data-sort-value="1997-11">novembre 1997</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">2747–2755</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/0022-0949">0022-0949</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9418031">9418031</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9418031">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Aerial+performance+of+Drosophila+melanogaster+from+populations+selected+for+upwind+flight+ability&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Experimental+Biology&rft.issue=Pt+21&rft.aulast=Marden&rft.aufirst=J.+H.&rft.au=Wolf%2C+M.+R.&rft.au=Weber%2C+K.+E.&rft.date=1997-11&rft.volume=200&rft.pages=2747%E2%80%932755&rft.issn=0022-0949&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9418031&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-46">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="RatcliffDenisonBorrelloTravisano2012"><span class="ouvrage" id="William_C._RatcliffR._Ford_DenisonMark_BorrelloMichael_Travisano2012">William C. <span class="nom_auteur">Ratcliff</span>, R. Ford <span class="nom_auteur">Denison</span>, Mark <span class="nom_auteur">Borrello</span> et Michael <span class="nom_auteur">Travisano</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">Experimental evolution of multicellularity</cite> », <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 109, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 5, <time class="nowrap" datetime="2012-01-31" data-sort-value="2012-01-31">31 janvier 2012</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">1595–1600</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/1091-6490">1091-6490</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22307617">22307617</a></span>, <a href="PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMCID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3277146">PMC3277146</a></span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1115323109">10.1073/pnas.1115323109</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22307617">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Experimental+evolution+of+multicellularity&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.issue=5&rft.aulast=Ratcliff&rft.aufirst=William+C.&rft.au=Denison%2C+R.+Ford&rft.au=Borrello%2C+Mark&rft.au=Travisano%2C+Michael&rft.date=2012-01-31&rft.volume=109&rft.pages=1595%E2%80%931600&rft.issn=1091-6490&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1115323109&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22307617&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-47">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="BarrickYuYoonJeong2009"><span class="ouvrage" id="Jeffrey_E._BarrickDong_Su_YuSung_Ho_YoonHaeyoung_Jeong2009">Jeffrey E. <span class="nom_auteur">Barrick</span>, Dong Su <span class="nom_auteur">Yu</span>, Sung Ho <span class="nom_auteur">Yoon</span> et Haeyoung <span class="nom_auteur">Jeong</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">Genome evolution and adaptation in a long-term experiment with Escherichia coli</cite> », <i>Nature</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 461, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 7268, <time class="nowrap" datetime="2009-10-29" data-sort-value="2009-10-29">29 octobre 2009</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">1243–1247</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/1476-4687">1476-4687</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19838166">19838166</a></span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature08480">10.1038/nature08480</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19838166">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Genome+evolution+and+adaptation+in+a+long-term+experiment+with+Escherichia+coli&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.issue=7268&rft.aulast=Barrick&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+E.&rft.au=Yu%2C+Dong+Su&rft.au=Yoon%2C+Sung+Ho&rft.au=Jeong%2C+Haeyoung&rft.date=2009-10-29&rft.volume=461&rft.pages=1243%E2%80%931247&rft.issn=1476-4687&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature08480&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19838166&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-48">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="HeinemanMolineuxBull2005"><span class="ouvrage" id="Richard_H._HeinemanIan_J._MolineuxJames_J._Bull2005">Richard H. <span class="nom_auteur">Heineman</span>, Ian J. <span class="nom_auteur">Molineux</span> et James J. <span class="nom_auteur">Bull</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">Evolutionary robustness of an optimal phenotype: re-evolution of lysis in a bacteriophage deleted for its lysin gene</cite> », <i>Journal of Molecular Evolution</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 61, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 2, <time class="nowrap" datetime="2005-08" data-sort-value="2005-08">août 2005</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">181–191</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/0022-2844">0022-2844</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16096681">16096681</a></span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00239-004-0304-4">10.1007/s00239-004-0304-4</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16096681">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Evolutionary+robustness+of+an+optimal+phenotype%3A+re-evolution+of+lysis+in+a+bacteriophage+deleted+for+its+lysin+gene&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Molecular+Evolution&rft.issue=2&rft.aulast=Heineman&rft.aufirst=Richard+H.&rft.au=Molineux%2C+Ian+J.&rft.au=Bull%2C+James+J.&rft.date=2005-08&rft.volume=61&rft.pages=181%E2%80%93191&rft.issn=0022-2844&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00239-004-0304-4&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16096681&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-49">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="AitaHamamatsuNomiyaUchiyama2002"><span class="ouvrage" id="Takuyo_AitaNorio_HamamatsuYukiko_NomiyaHidefumi_Uchiyama2002">Takuyo <span class="nom_auteur">Aita</span>, Norio <span class="nom_auteur">Hamamatsu</span>, Yukiko <span class="nom_auteur">Nomiya</span> et Hidefumi <span class="nom_auteur">Uchiyama</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">Surveying a local fitness landscape of a protein with epistatic sites for the study of directed evolution</cite> », <i>Biopolymers</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 64, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 2, <time class="nowrap" datetime="2002-07-05" data-sort-value="2002-07-05">5 juillet 2002</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">95–105</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/0006-3525">0006-3525</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11979520">11979520</a></span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/bip.10126">10.1002/bip.10126</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11979520">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Surveying+a+local+fitness+landscape+of+a+protein+with+epistatic+sites+for+the+study+of+directed+evolution&rft.jtitle=Biopolymers&rft.issue=2&rft.aulast=Aita&rft.aufirst=Takuyo&rft.au=Hamamatsu%2C+Norio&rft.au=Nomiya%2C+Yukiko&rft.au=Uchiyama%2C+Hidefumi&rft.date=2002-07-05&rft.volume=64&rft.pages=95%E2%80%93105&rft.issn=0006-3525&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fbip.10126&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11979520&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-50">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="SteinbergOstermeier2016"><span class="ouvrage" id="Barrett_SteinbergMarc_Ostermeier2016">Barrett <span class="nom_auteur">Steinberg</span> et Marc <span class="nom_auteur">Ostermeier</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">Environmental changes bridge evolutionary valleys</cite> », <i>Science Advances</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 2, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 1, <time class="nowrap" datetime="2016-01" data-sort-value="2016-01">janvier 2016</time>, e1500921 <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/2375-2548">2375-2548</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26844293">26844293</a></span>, <a href="PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMCID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4737206">PMC4737206</a></span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1500921">10.1126/sciadv.1500921</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26844293">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Environmental+changes+bridge+evolutionary+valleys&rft.jtitle=Science+Advances&rft.issue=1&rft.aulast=Steinberg&rft.aufirst=Barrett&rft.au=Ostermeier%2C+Marc&rft.date=2016-01&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=e1500921&rft.issn=2375-2548&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fsciadv.1500921&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26844293&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-51">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="ArnoldWintrodeMiyazakiGershenson2001"><span class="ouvrage" id="F._H._ArnoldP._L._WintrodeK._MiyazakiA._Gershenson2001">F. H. <span class="nom_auteur">Arnold</span>, P. L. <span class="nom_auteur">Wintrode</span>, K. <span class="nom_auteur">Miyazaki</span> et A. <span class="nom_auteur">Gershenson</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">How enzymes adapt: lessons from directed evolution</cite> », <i>Trends in Biochemical Sciences</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 26, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 2, <time class="nowrap" datetime="2001-02" data-sort-value="2001-02">février 2001</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">100–106</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/0968-0004">0968-0004</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11166567">11166567</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11166567">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=How+enzymes+adapt%3A+lessons+from+directed+evolution&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Biochemical+Sciences&rft.issue=2&rft.aulast=Arnold&rft.aufirst=F.+H.&rft.au=Wintrode%2C+P.+L.&rft.au=Miyazaki%2C+K.&rft.au=Gershenson%2C+A.&rft.date=2001-02&rft.volume=26&rft.pages=100%E2%80%93106&rft.issn=0968-0004&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11166567&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-52">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><span class="ouvrage" id="BloomRavalWilke2007"><span class="ouvrage" id="Jesse_D._BloomAlpan_RavalClaus_O._Wilke2007">Jesse D. <span class="nom_auteur">Bloom</span>, Alpan <span class="nom_auteur">Raval</span> et Claus O. <span class="nom_auteur">Wilke</span>, « <cite style="font-style:normal">Thermodynamics of neutral protein evolution</cite> », <i>Genetics</i>, <abbr class="abbr" title="volume">vol.</abbr> 175, <abbr class="abbr" title="numéro">n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 1, <time class="nowrap" datetime="2007-01" data-sort-value="2007-01">janvier 2007</time>, <abbr class="abbr" title="pages">p.</abbr> <span class="nowrap">255–266</span> <small style="line-height:1em;">(<a href="International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <span class=" noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.issn.org/resource/issn/0016-6731">0016-6731</a></span>, <a href="PubMed" title="PubMed">PMID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17110496">17110496</a></span>, <a href="PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMCID</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1775007">PMC1775007</a></span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</a> <span class=" noarchive nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1534/genetics.106.061754">10.1534/genetics.106.061754</a></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17110496">lire en ligne</a>, consulté le <time class="nowrap" datetime="2017-11-28" data-sort-value="2017-11-28">28 novembre 2017</time>)</small><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Thermodynamics+of+neutral+protein+evolution&rft.jtitle=Genetics&rft.issue=1&rft.aulast=Bloom&rft.aufirst=Jesse+D.&rft.au=Raval%2C+Alpan&rft.au=Wilke%2C+Claus+O.&rft.date=2007-01&rft.volume=175&rft.pages=255%E2%80%93266&rft.issn=0016-6731&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1534%2Fgenetics.106.061754&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17110496&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%3A%C3%89volution+dirig%C3%A9e"></span></span></span></span>
</li>
</ol></div>
</div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Voir_aussi">Voir aussi</h2></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Liens_externes">Liens externes</h3></div>
<ul><li>Groupes de recherche
<ul><li><abbr class="abbr indicateur-langue" title="Langue : anglais">(en)</abbr> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.weizmann.ac.il/Biomolecular_Sciences/Tawfik/">Groupe de recherche de Dan Tawfik</a></li>
<li><abbr class="abbr indicateur-langue" title="Langue : anglais">(en)</abbr> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biotec.rwth-aachen.de/">Groupe de recherche d'Ulrich Schwaneberg</a></li>
<li><abbr class="abbr indicateur-langue" title="Langue : anglais">(en)</abbr> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fhalab.caltech.edu/">Groupe de recherche de Frances Arnold</a></li>
<li><abbr class="abbr indicateur-langue" title="Langue : anglais">(en)</abbr> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chbe.illinois.edu/~zhaogrp/">Groupe de recherche de Huimin Zhao</a></li>
<li><abbr class="abbr indicateur-langue" title="Langue : anglais">(en)</abbr> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.embl.fr/research/unit/hart/index.html">Groupe de recherche de Darren Hart</a></li>
<li><abbr class="abbr indicateur-langue" title="Langue : anglais">(en)</abbr> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://evolve.harvard.edu/">Groupe de recherche de David Liu</a></li>
<li><abbr class="abbr indicateur-langue" title="Langue : anglais">(en)</abbr> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.clarklab.org/">Groupe de recherche de Douglas Clark</a></li>
<li><abbr class="abbr indicateur-langue" title="Langue : anglais">(en)</abbr> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.homepages.ucl.ac.uk/~ucbepad/PADframeset.htm">Groupe de recherche de Paul Balby</a></li></ul></li>
<li><abbr class="abbr indicateur-langue" title="Langue : anglais">(en)</abbr> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sesam-biotech.com/enzyme-services/protein-engineering/">SeSaM-Biotech - Évolution Dirigée</a></li>
<li><abbr class="abbr indicateur-langue" title="Langue : anglais">(en)</abbr> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chymiatrie.de/index.php/component/content/article/133-video-37">Le Prof. Reetz explique le principe de l'Évolution Dirigée</a></li>
<li><abbr class="abbr indicateur-langue" title="Langue : anglais">(en)</abbr> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.codexis.com/">Compagnie Codexis, Inc.</a></li></ul>
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